History. On October 1, Traor declared on state television that the French had provided refuge to Damiba, saying Damiba was believed to have taken refuge in the French base at Kamboinsin in order to plan a counter-offensive to stir up trouble in our defence and security forces. For example, African children were not allowed to ride bicycles or pick fruit from trees, "privileges" reserved for the children of colonists. Nantou Minings liquidity position has deteriorated significantly in the months following the flooding event that occurred at its Perkoa mine on April 16. The cotton policy based on coercion failed, and revenue generated by the colony stagnated. Lieutenant-Colonel Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba, President of Burkina Faso, arrives to his inauguration ceremony as President of Transition, in Ouagadougou. Tune in as FPs executive editor, Amelia Lester, and FPs team of reporters answer your questions about whats at stake for U.S. foreign policy in the midterms as well as analyze the possible outcomes. The roll call covers countries such as Burkina Faso, Guinea Conakry, Mali, and Niger. Ibrahim Traor of Burkina Faso has proclaimed himself the new president of the countrys military junta. In 1960, it gained full independence with Maurice Yamogo as president. Only 1.6million Burkinab voted, out of a total population 10times that size. To face the advancing desert and recurrent droughts, Thomas Sankara also proposed the planting of wooded strips of about fifty kilometers, crossing the country from east to west. OUAGADOUGOU, Burkina Faso (AP) Capt. A forum bringing together political parties, social and religious groups and representatives of the security forces got underway in Burkina Faso on Friday, two weeks after a coup. Nosmot Gbadamosi is a multimedia journalist and the writer of Foreign Policys weekly Africa Brief. Note: When you select a default region you will be directed to the MiningWeekly.com home page of your choice whenever you visit miningweekly.com. ), total subscriptions: 75,039 (2020 est. [31], Draftees from the territory participated in the European fronts of World War I in the battalions of the Senegalese Rifles. Among the best known directors from Burkina Faso are Gaston Kabor, Idrissa Ouedraogo and Dani Kouyate. Also every two years, the Symposium de sculpture sur granit de Laongo takes place on a site located about 35 kilometres (22 miles) from Ouagadougou, in the province of Oubritenga. Journalists at the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project examine how in 1998, a Geneva-based company called Addax Petroleum with no record in oil extraction gained four valuable oil production licenses. [138], The December 2018 report by the World Bank indicated that the poverty rate fell slightly between 2009 and 2014, from 46% to a still high 40.1%. Another source in the Burkinabe army told our colleagues at FasoCheck, a Burkina Faso-based fact-checking website, that "the airplane used, a Hercule C-130, which belongs to the army of Niger, who lent it to Burkina as part of the military cooperation between these two countries. The United States has also given two such planes to Niger. Reports have emerged in recent years of disputes over pay and conditions. Kabor won the election in the first round of voting, receiving 53.5% of the vote against 29.7% for the second place candidate, Zephirin Diabr. He also allowed former President Blaise Compaor back into the country within a framework of national reconciliation despite Compaors life sentence for the murder of Sankara. The Burkinabe military is frequently targeted by jihadi militants, Ukraine updates: Russia orders troops fall back in Kherson. [73] He was sworn in as President on 16 February. Burkina Fasos ousted military leader, Lt Col Paul-Henri Damiba has reportedly fled to neighbouring Togo after stepping down. On 2 August 1984, on President Sankara's initiative, the country's name changed from "Upper Volta" to "Burkina Faso", or land of the honest men; (the literal translation is land of the upright men. The revision was completed in 2018. A law enforcement agency (LEA) is any agency which enforces the law.This may be a special or local police/sheriff, state trooper, and fed such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) or the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). He overthrew his long-time friend and ally Thomas Sankara, who was killed in the coup.[83]. [103], There is a municipal police force controlled by the Ministry of Territorial Administration; a national police force controlled by the Ministry of Security; and an autonomous Regiment of Presidential Security (Rgiment de la Scurit Prsidentielle, or RSP), a 'palace guard' devoted to the protection of the President of the Republic. Ukraine Pushes Russia Out of Kherson, the Biggest Liberation Yet, Ukraines War Is Like World War I, Not World War II, Bidens Foreign-Policy Agenda Is Still Alive, The Battle Over Semiconductors Is Endangering Taiwan. He faces numerous challenges in office: a divided party, soaring inflation, calls for a general election, and much more. )methane emissions: 12.85 megatons (2020 est. Some gold mining areas are under the control of militant groups and provide a source of theirfunding. Note: When you clear your default region you will be directed to the MiningWeekly.com home page regional edition associated with the geographic location of our IP address. )proven reserves: 0 metric tons (2019 est. By 1898, the majority of the territory corresponding to Burkina Faso was nominally conquered; however, French control of many parts remained uncertain.[19]. [28], During the early 16th century the Songhai conducted many slave raids into what is today Burkina Faso. The coup brought Sankara to power and his government began to implement a series of revolutionary programs which included mass-vaccinations, infrastructure improvements, the expansion of women's rights, encouragement of domestic agricultural consumption, and anti-desertification projects.[36]. Friday, Oct. 7: Lesotho parliamentary elections are scheduled to take place. The World Bank said that the economic outlook remained favorable in the short and medium term, although that could be negatively impacted. )biomass and waste: 0.4% of total installed capacity (2020 est. Kabor became unpopular amid incessant attacks by armed groups and because he ignored mass demonstrations calling for him to resign. The 2011 Burkinab protests were a series of popular protests that called for the resignation of Compaor, democratic reforms, higher wages for troops and public servants and economic freedom. )imports: 600 million kWh (2019 est. [129], The European Commission expects that approximately 500,000children under age5 in Burkina Faso will suffer from acute malnutrition in 2015, including around 149,000 who will suffer from its most life-threatening form. As part of a development program involving a large part of the population, ten million trees were planted in Burkina Faso in fifteen months during the revolution. Bateman previously served as the director for cyber strategy implementation in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. The Gendarmerie operates under the authority of the Minister of Defence, and its members are employed chiefly in the rural areas and along borders. [66], In a successful coup on 24 January 2022, mutinying soldiers arrested and deposed President Roch Marc Christian Kabor following gunfire. The 1991 constitution created a bicameral parliament, but the upper house (Chamber of Representatives) was abolished in 2002. Will other nations support Washingtons new approach? Advanced education was provided for many years during the colonial period in Dakar. The 1960 constitution provided for election by universal suffrage of a president and a national assembly for five-year terms. McFarland, Daniel Miles and Rupley, Lawrence A. Roy, Christopher D and Wheelock, Thomas G B, This page was last edited on 9 November 2022, at 22:22. [174] Since the 1970s, literature has developed in Burkina Faso with many more writers being published. Every two years, Ouagadougou hosts the Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou (FESPACO), the largest African cinema festival on the continent (February, odd years). Burkinab soldiers see the relative success that the Wagner Group has had in seizing back territories from armed militias in the Central African Republic and in preventing rebels from deposing its government. Faced with the deteriorating situation, we tried several times to get Damiba to refocus the transition on the security question, Traor said in a signed statement read out by another officer on state television. Transport in Burkina Faso is limited by relatively underdeveloped infrastructure. Burkina Fasos Junta Looks to Russia for Support She has reported on human rights, the environment, and sustainable development from across the African continent. More than one million of the country's 21 million inhabitants are internally displaced persons. Besides RTB, there are privately owned sports, cultural, music, and religious FM radio stations. [173], Literature in Burkina Faso is based on the oral tradition, which remains important. )3.9% (2015 est. Political experts suggest current military leader Col. Mamady Doumbouyas decision to begin the trial could be to garner public goodwillhaving himself taken over in a coup last year. Experts argue it is critical that international partners avoid anti-Russia rhetoric in Burkina Faso that could be weaponized by the junta as the West prioritizing geopolitics over the security of the people. Lamizana was re-elected by open elections in 1978. )arable land: 22% (2018 est. Watch FP editor in chief Ravi Agrawals conversation with Jon Bateman, a senior fellow in the Technology and International Affairs Program at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. note: data are in current year dollars$5.3 billion (2017 est. Within this ministry, the Directorate General for Research and Sector Statistics is responsible for planning. Nicaragua: Ortega's rivals decry local vote clampdown, country has been grappling with insurgency. ), total petroleum production: 0 bbl/day (2021 est. The policy also makes provisions for strengthening the ministry's strategic and operational capacities. Burkinabe also migrated to Ghana, Mali, and Senegal for work between the world wars. )5.9% (2016 est. [168], A Dengue fever outbreak in 2016 killed 20 patients. )forest: 19.3% (2018 est. Army Capt. ), -0.61 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est. A typical Burkinab beverage is Banji or Palm Wine, which is fermented palm sap; and Zoom-kom, or "grain water" purportedly the national drink of Burkina Faso. )permanent crops: 37% (2018 est. )crude oil and lease condensate exports: 0 barrels/day (2018 est. On 11 December 1958 the colony achieved self-government as the Republic of Upper Volta; it joined the Franco-African Community. Western-style theatre became common during colonial times, heavily influenced by French theatre. Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) is a landlocked Sahel country that shares borders with six nations. The country is currently ranked 53rd in the FIFA World Rankings, and has shown improvement in recent years, although they have never qualified for a FIFA World Cup.[185]. [42] His national agenda also included planting over 10,000,000 trees to halt the growing desertification of the Sahel. The junta could also seek out the assistance of Turkey, which has increased its military salesto Africa. [98], Certain rights are also enshrined in the revised wording: access to drinking water, access to decent housing and a recognition of the right to civil disobedience, for example. The capital and largest city is Ouagadougou (Ouaga), with a population of 1.8 million as shown in this population distribution map, landlocked savanna cut by the three principal rivers of the Black, Red, and White Voltas, 21,935,389 (2022 est. In the last 10 years, Africa has been subjected to a spate of military coups against democratic governments. It is better known by its French name as SIAO, Le Salon International de l' Artisanat de Ouagadougou, and is one of the most important African handicraft fairs. What impact will these changes have on the broader U.S.-China relationship? Saturday's attack by the militants also comes just days after a new government was inaugurated in Burkina Faso following the latest coup. Strongman politics. Wednesday, Oct. 5: The United Nations Human Rights Council discusses the situation in Somalia and the Central African Republic. From Algeria to Zimbabwe and countries in between, a weekly roundup of essential news and analysis from Africa. Geographic and environmental causes can also play a significant role in contributing to Burkina Faso's food insecurity. Delivered Friday. It secured 56 seats out of a total of 127. [177] She uses her skills to raise awareness around issues such as blood donation, albinism and the impact of COVID-19.[178][179][180]. Many of Burkina Fasos ethnic groups arrived in the region between the 12 th and 15 th centuries. It has a population of 20,321,378. Join FPs security and intelligence reporter, Amy Mackinnon, for a wide-ranging interview with Robin Niblett, a distinguished fellow at Chatham House, and Anand Menon, a professor of European politics at Kings College London. Boys receive preference in schooling; as such, girls' education and literacy rates are far lower than their male counterparts. Protesters wave flags of Russia and Burkina Faso as they demonstrate against the Economic Community of West African States, whose representatives were expected in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, on Oct. 4. An inquiry found that McKinsey had knowingly allowed funds from state utility provider Eskom to be diverted to Gupta companies as a way of securing two lucrative contracts. Hundreds of thousands of Burkinab migrate regularly to Ivory Coast and Ghana, mainly for seasonal agricultural work. Predominantly farmers, the Mossi kingdom is led by the Mogho Naba, whose court is in Ouagadougou.[154]. Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic. The referendum was required because the opposition parties in Parliament refused to sanction the proposed text.[99]. The company said the new military leadership had released a statement urging people of Burkina Faso to go about their business in peace. It is a biennial event which takes place every two years in Bobo Dioulasso, the second-largest city in the country. Welcome to Foreign Policys Africa Brief. Mali, a country at the core of violent extremism spreading throughout west African Sahel, has pledged allegiance to Russia at the expense of France, which wound up its operations there in August, despite nine years and a total cost of billions of euros for supporting its military. Russian flags began to appear on the streets of Ouagadougou soon after the coup was announced. How will this impact the global economy? [140], Since 2000, nearly 2million more people have access to water in the four principal urban centres in the country; the company has kept the quality of infrastructure high (less than 18% of the water is lost through leaks one of the lowest in sub-Saharan Africa), improved financial reporting, and increased its annual revenue by an average of 12% (well above inflation). As of June 2014 the main international airport, Ouagadougou Airport, had regularly scheduled flights to many destinations in West Africa as well as Paris, Brussels and Istanbul. Moussa Dadis Camara, Guineas former president and military ruler, as well as 10 other security officials began last Wednesday, 13 years after more than 150 unarmed people were gunned down and over 100 women were brutally raped at an opposition rally in Guineas capital, Conakry, on Sept. 28, 2009. [126], These high rates of food insecurity and the accompanying effects are even more prevalent in rural populations compared to urban ones, as access to health services in rural areas is much more limited and awareness and education of children's nutritional needs is lower. At least 15 soldiers and volunteer militiamen were killed in the latest ambush by Islamist militants in the eastern province of Burkina Faso, the country's security forces said on Sunday. Web. separate emails by commas, maximum limit of 4 addresses, Trevalis Burkina Faso subsidiary files application for liquidation, 7th October 2022 : SIL International. The case, announced by South Africas National Prosecuting Authority, implicates McKinsey in a locomotive purchase contract for the state-owned ports and rail operator Transnet, a process that McKinsey oversaw in 2012. Burkina Fasos latest coup, announced Friday on state television, has raised fears that the countrys political chaos could produce more violence from the regions Islamic extremists. )investment in fixed capital: 24.6% (2017 est. Other presidential candidates challenged the election results. Download the France 24 app, Burkina Faso hit by fresh uncertainty after second coup in eight months, Burkina Faso army captain announces overthrow of military government, Dozens killed, injured in attack in northern Burkina Faso, France reorientates its military goals as war returns to Europe, Macron confirms end of anti-jihadist West Africa military operation, COP27 app gives Egypts Sisi access to every move attendees make, Allies successful first invasion but a botched job: Operation Torch, 80 years on, Im very worried: Mother of jailed Egyptian activist on hunger strike wants action, Death toll rises after plane crash in Lake Victoria in Tanzania, Crisis on the Nile: Global warming and overuse threaten Africas longest river, Cameroons Paul Biya marks 40 years as president, Suicide bomber attacks Somalia military training camp, Hundreds of animals die in Kenyan wildlife preserves amid regions worst drought in decades, DR Congo president calls for youth to form 'vigilance groups' amid resurgence of M23 rebels, Guinea junta seeks to prosecute ex-president Conde on corruption charges, Warring parties in Ethiopia's Tigray conflict agree to truce. Much of the crafts produced are for the country's growing tourist industry. And with the Republican Party itself increasingly splintered, will its more isolationist wing win out? Yet the raid of Kutis home by 1,000 armed soldiersof Nigerias military government immediately after the festival would come to symbolize the dashed political hopes of the 1970s, Nance told the New York Times. over his close ties to the former president. As if fighting in what for now, at least appears to be a losing battle in Ukraine werent enough, the Wagner Group, a private army of Russian mercenaries commanded by Yevgeny Prigozhin, a close associate of Vladimir Putin, is heavily committed in a range of conflicts and security crises in west Africa. He asked about where they could have come from so quickly. But the widespread distrust of politicians and lack of political involvement by many residents complicated this process. Emma Heywood, Lassan Yamogo, and Marie Fierens do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment. Delivered Wednesday & Sunday. [138] Lastly, the third component of this project focuses on institutional development and capacity building. Click on the button below to clear your default MiningWeekly.com regional edition. The French feared a recurrence of armed uprising and had related economic considerations. Typical of West African cuisine, Burkina Faso's cuisine is based on staple foods of sorghum, millet, rice, maize, peanuts, potatoes, beans, yams and okra. ), $3.056 billion (31 December 2017 est. FP Event: Investing in African Health Security. The deposits are greenstone-hosted high-grade orogenic gold deposits. Delivered Monday-Saturday. [115] Agriculture represents 32% of its gross domestic product and occupies 80% of the working population. The government wishes to develop, in parallel, applied sciences and technology and social and human sciences. The government of Burkina Faso's 2019 census reported that 63.8% of the population practice Islam, and that the majority of this group belong to the Sunni branch,[2][170] while a small minority adheres to Shia Islam. )imports: 0 metric tons (2020 est. Burkina Faso has a young age structure the result of declining mortality combined with steady high fertility and continues to experience rapid population growth, which is putting increasing pressure on the countrys limited arable land. According to UNICEF, access to drinking water has increased from 39 to 76% in rural areas between 1990 and 2015. om Beijing by imposing aggressive sanctions targeting Chinas chip and semiconductor industry. Essential analysis of the stories shaping geopolitics on the continent. Burkina Fasos Junta Looks to Russia f Want to read more on this topic or region? In this file photo taken on March 2, 2022 Lieutenant-Colonel Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba, President of Burkina Faso, is seen at his inauguration ceremony as President of Transition, in Ouagadougou. [192][193], In January 1999, Franois Compaor was charged with the murder of David Ouedraogo, who had died as a result of torture in January 1998. The official language is French, which was introduced during the colonial period. [19] Agricultural settlements were established between 3600 and 2600BCE. Weekly update on whats driving U.S. national security policy. Traditional ritual ceremonies of the many ethnic groups in Burkina Faso have long involved dancing with masks. Better nutrition among the two most vulnerable groups, young children and pregnant women, prepares them to be able to respond better in times when food security is compromised, such as in droughts. The French designated its colonies as departments of metropolitan France on the European continent. Many felt Damiba was becoming more of a politician than a military leader who could succeed against the jihadis. The southwest of the country, on the other hand, forms a sandstone massif, where the highest peak, Tnakourou, is found at an elevation of 749 meters (2,457ft). [134] Additionally, the activities of this operation contribute to families' abilities to withstand future food crises. A relatively dry tropical savanna, the Sahel extends beyond the borders of Burkina Faso, from the Horn of Africa to the Atlantic Ocean, and borders the Sahara to its north and the fertile region of the Sudan to the south. [119], Burkina Faso is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). France 24 is not responsible for the content of external websites. Sankara had conducted an ambitious socioeconomic programme which included a nationwide literacy campaign, land redistribution to peasants, railway and road construction, and the outlawing of female genital mutilation, forced marriages, and polygamy. Traors comments so far suggest he is open to working with all international partners excluding France, who Burkinab perceive as having worsened civilian casualties in the region. (2005), European Rail Timetable, Summer2014 Edition, Patriotic Movement for Safeguard and Restoration, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Franco-British Convention of 14 June 1898, Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa, Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception of Ouagadougou, The Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso, Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou, International Art and Craft Fair, Ouagadougou, Symposium de sculpture sur granit de Laongo, Festival International des Masques et des Arts, "Burkina: 48,1% de la population du Sud-ouest pratique l'Animisme (officiel)", "Burkina Faso soldiers announce overthrow of military government", "5e Recensement gnral de la population et de l'habitat: l'esprance de vie s'amliore de 5,2 ans au Burkina Faso", "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects", "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2021", "Distribution of family income Gini index", ISO 4217 currency names and code elements, "burkina-faso noun Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com", "Burkina Faso Population 2021 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs)", "Burkina Faso restores constitution, names coup leader president", "Global voices Burkina Faso: Two languages are better than one", "Ancient Ferrous Metallurgy Sites of Burkina Faso", "More (Language of the Moose people) Phrase Book", "Burkina Faso's history, also called Upper Volta, endured between 1960 and 1987, 6 military coups and the establishment of 3 republics", "cole, langues, cultures et dveloppement", More (Language of the Mossi Tribe) Phrase Book, "Assassination of Thomas Sankara: evidence of a documentary by RAI 3 involve France, CIA and Blaise Compaor", Burkina Faso Salutes "Africa's Che" Thomas Sankara, "Burkina Faso protesters set parliament on fire, take over state TV and march on presidency", "Burkina Faso General Takes Power After President Resigns", Burkina Faso's President Resigns, and General Takes Reins, "Army backs new Burkina Faso leader Isaac Zida", "Burkina Faso talks agree on plan for return to civilian rule", "Burkina Faso coup: military says it now controls country after arresting leaders: live", "Burkina Faso Leader Apologizes To Nation For Seizing Power in a Coup", "A Week After Coup, Burkina Faso's Interim President Back in Power", "Kabore wins Burkina Faso presidential election", "Burkina Faso swears in new president, capping transition", "Burkina Faso elections: Kabore's party fails to clinch majority parliamentary seats", "16 killed in Burkina Faso mosque attack: security sources", "U.S. Embassy Ouagadougou Statement on Human Rights Watch Report (July 8): Burkina Faso Allegations of Extrajudicial Killings", "Burkina Faso President Kabore detained at military camp, security sources say", "ZEIT ONLINE | Lesen Sie zeit.de mit Werbung oder im PUR-Abo. Basketball is another sport which enjoys much popularity for both men and women. Burkina Faso's fauna and flora are protected in four national parks: and several reserves: see List of national parks in Africa and Nature reserves of Burkina Faso. Wednesday, Oct. 5, to Thursday, Oct. 6: The trial of Flicien Kabuga, alleged financier of the Rwandan genocide, continues in The Hague. Following the appointment of a liquidator, further information will be communicated to affected parties in accordance with applicable legislation. In Burkina Faso in 2010, 46% of researchers were working in the health sector, 16% in engineering, 13% in natural sciences, 9% in agricultural sciences, 7% in the humanities and 4% in social sciences. The country has seen an upswing in gold exploration, production, and exports. [2] Due to French colonialism, the country's official language of government and business is French. ), 19.4 years (2010 est. Paul Kaba Thieba was appointed PM in early 2016. One-stop digest of politics, economics, and culture. )494.42 (2013 est. Some who support the new coup leader, Traore, have called on Burkina Fasos government to seek Russian support instead. In 1896, it was colonized by the French as part of French West Africa; in 1958, Upper Volta became a self-governing colony within the French Community. )wine: 0.08 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est. Please expand the section to include this information. Figures de la rvolution africaine, de Kenyatta Sankara, La Dcouverte, 2014, p. 271-288. ), agriculture: 31% (2017 est. [70] On 31 January, the military junta restored the constitution and appointed Damiba interim president. The French government finally suppressed the movement but only after suffering defeats. This cleared the way for his candidacy in the 2005 election. These were expressed in the three colors of the former national flag. At the 2020 Summer Olympics, the athlete Hugues Fabrice Zango won Burkina Faso's first Olympic medal, winning bronze in the men's triple jump. The first president, Maurice Yamogo, was the leader of the Voltaic Democratic Union (UDV). [102], Burkina Faso employs numerous police and security forces, generally modeled after organizations used by French police. Burkina Faso is a multilingual country. Read his essay on U.S.-China decoupling. Burkina Faso attracts migrants from Cote dIvoire, Ghana, and Mali, who often share common ethnic backgrounds with the Burkinabe. [186] The country's men's national team had its most successful year in 2013 when it qualified for the AfroBasket, the continent's prime basketball event. The Black Volta is one of the country's only two rivers which flow year-round, the other being the Komo, which flows to the southwest. The charges were later dropped by a military tribunal after an appeal. [124], According to the Global Hunger Index, a multidimensional tool used to measure and track a country's hunger levels,[125] Burkina Faso ranked 65 out of 78countries in 2013. [156] Slavery in the Sahel states in general, is an entrenched institution with a long history that dates back to the trans-Saharan slave trade. d. Will U.S. support for Ukraine continue apace? The Gurma and Mossi peoples established several of the largest kingdoms in the area and used horse-mounted warriors in military campaigns. President and a national assembly for five-year terms for seasonal agricultural work a new government was inaugurated Burkina... That occurred at its Perkoa mine on April 16 Mogho Naba, court! Years of disputes over pay and conditions Bank said that the economic outlook remained favorable the... Were established between 3600 and 2600BCE ] his national agenda also included planting over trees... 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